Special Education Related Services

Articulation

Articulation involves making the sounds in a language that are related to speech. Sounds can be substituted, left off, added or changed. Young children often make speech errors as they learn the sounds in a language. For instance, many young children make a “w” sound for an “r” sound (e.g., “wabbit” for “rabbit”) or may leave sounds out of words, such as “nana” for “banana.” Not all sound substitutions and omissions are speech errors.

Instead, they may be related to a feature of a dialect or of an accent if your child is bilingual.

What is developmentally appropriate?

Sounds acquisition occurs along a developmenal progression.  The earleist acquired sounds include: p, b, m, n, w, h, g, k, t, d, and y, followed by f, and “-ing.”  Later occuring sounds include: l, v, “ch,” “sh,” “j,” z, s, r, “th” as well as consonant blends (such as “sl” in “slide” and “tr” as in “train”).

Should I be worried if my child hasn’t acquired these sounds?

Not necessarily. When thinking about your child’s speech, consider his or her intelligibility. The term intelligibility refers to how much a listener can understand the speaker. As children learn to talk, their ability to be understood to those around them steadily increases. Generally speaking, by the time your child is 4, he or she should be understood by family, friends, and acquaintances.

How can I help my child learn the speech sounds?

• Model good speech for your child using a moderate rate of speech.
• When your child produces articulation errors, repeat the utterance using correct speech sounds.  For example, if your child says, “I see the tar.” you can repeat their utterance correctly by saying, “Oh, yes! I see the car, too!”
• Don’t directly imitate your child’s errors. Some of the cute things our children say are very precious to us. But don’t inadvertently reinforce the incorrect productions.
• Read to your child. It’s amazing how much this accomplishes. Use reading as a way to surround your child with the targeted sound.
• Play with your child. Spend time talking with your child in play, while you model the correct productions very simply, using revision. Talk to your child as you go through your daily routine. This is a chance to model many correct productions, use revision, and stimulate language development, too.
• Gain your child’s attention before speaking so that he or she can pick up important cues about the way you use your lips, teeth, tongue, etc. to produce speech sounds.
• Get down to your child’s level as you speak so that your child can hear and see your speech productions more easily.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: Should I understand everything my toddler is saying?

A: No.  Toddlers are in the process of acquiring speech sounds.  They learn best by practicing how to make sounds and how to put sounds together to make words.  Since they are still learning, we cannot expect them to be perfect at it.  Toddlers are not understood all of the time, even by their parents.

Q:  How do you understand what a child is saying when s/he is difficult to understand?

A: Some strategies you can use are to learn how the child talks (identify “patterns” of errors that they make over and over), ask questions (starting with general questions like, “are you talking about something I can see? and gradually becoming more specific, offering choices, asking them to show you what they are talking about, asking them to say it in a different way (or using different words), and repeating back what you did understand so that you and your child are focused only on the small part of the message that you did not understand.

Q:  Do boys and girls develop speech sounds at different rates?

A:  All children develop speech sounds at different rates; however, girls do tend to develop speech sounds faster than boys.

Additional Links for Parents

Games for parents and children

Additional games for parents and children

Articulation Apps

Articulation Essentials Lite

Articulation Games Lite

 Articulation Carnival

Definitions:

Fluency:

Fluency is the continuity, smoothness, rate, and effort of speech production.

Stuttering:

Stuttering is a communication disorder that is characterized by the production of dysfluencies, or disruptions in the production of speech. Everyone is dysfluent sometimes.  Examples of this are repeating words (e.g. I-I don’t know) or using fillers like “um” or “uh.” However, excessive dysfluency can impact a person’s ability to communicate effectively.  In addition to producing frequent dysfluencies, a person who stutters may also appear “out of breath” when speaking or experience physical tension in the muscles that produce speech.

Types of dysfluencies may include:

Type of dysfluency	Examples
Prolongation of speech sounds	Wwwwhere is my bag?
Repetition of sounds, syllables, or whole words	T-T-T-Tell me again, please.
Use of a series of interjections/fillers	Can I um um um go to my friends?
Blocks:  where speech may be completely stopped until the person is able to complete the word	Mom, I’m leaving. Long pause-Bus is here.

The ASHA website (http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/stuttering/) states that the cause of stuttering is unknown; however, genetics may play a part. Stuttering may also be impacted by neurological, environmental, developmental, and emotional factors.

Cluttering:

Cluttering is a communication disorder characterized by rapid and/or irregular speaking rates and excessive disfluencies. A person who clutters may sound “jerky” with inappropriate pauses, or as if he or she is not sure about what to say. Additionally, other symptoms are often present, including language or phonological errors and deficits in attention. Unlike people who stutter, those who clutter demonstrate little to no physical tension or secondary behaviors when speaking, as well as limited awareness of their irregular speech pattern.

Developmental Stuttering:

Per the American Speech-Language and Hearing Association’s (ASHA) website (http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/stuttering/), signs of developmental stuttering first appear between the ages of 2 ½ years and 4 years. A smaller number of children may not begin stuttering until elementary school. Among elementary school-aged students, stuttering is 3-4 times more common in males than in females.

How stuttering develops is variable. Some children may have more dysfluencies at the onset (or beginning). Other children may become more dysfluent gradually over months or years. The severity of dysfluency in children can also vary greatly from day to day and week to week. More stable symptoms of stuttering are seen in older adolescents, teens, and adults who stutter.

Per ASHA, 75% of children who demonstrate developmental stuttering eventually stop, some within a few months of the initial onset of dysfluencies. It is difficult to say for certain if a child’s dysfluency will continue into adulthood. Other people may also stutter for years and then improve. Per the National Stuttering Foundation’s website (http://www.nsastutter.org/), about 1% of the general population is estimated to stutter.

Parent Tips:

• Stuttering Foundation’s Tips for Talking with Your Child
• Stuttering Foundation’s Video “Stuttering for kids by kids”
• Stuttering Foundation’s EBook “Sometimes I just stutter”
• Stuttering Foundation’s Video “Stuttering and your child”
• Stuttering Foundation’s “If you think your child is stuttering”

Additional Information for Parents:

• ASHA webpage for Stuttering
• ASHA webpage for Childhood Fluency Disorders
• Stuttering Foundation’s webpage for Cluttering
• Nationals Stuttering Foundation
• National Stuttering Foundation- “Elementary School-Aged Kids” 
• Stuttering Foundation
• Super-Duper Publications’ “Stuttering” handout

Frequently Asked Questions:

1. I think my 3-year old child is starting to stutter. Should I be worried?

Per the Stuttering Foundation (www.stutteringhelp.org), about 5% of children go through a period of stuttering that lasts six months or more. This is referred to as developmental stuttering. Seventy-five percent of those children will recover by late childhood. As a parent, there are ways you can interact with your child to encourage fluency during this stage of developmental stuttering: If you think your child is stuttering

2. My elementary school-aged child stutters. Is there anything I can do as a parent to help?

As a parent, there are many ways you can assist your child in developing more fluent speech, including reducing demands, modeling good communication/slow rate, diminishing time pressures, and giving your child your undivided attention when possible. Please see the Parent Tips section of this webpage for links to parent resources on the Stuttering Foundation’s and National Stuttering Foundation’s websites.

3. What is the difference between stuttering and cluttering?

Per the ASHA foundation, as compared to individuals who stutter, people who clutter talk better under stress, when interrupted, on longer sentences, and in a foreign language. Additionally, individuals who clutter read unfamiliar texts better, do not seem to notice or care how he or she talks, do not have remissions in speech disorders, talk worse when calm, and do not pay attention to what is said. Only about 2% of all individuals with fluency disorders are considered “pure clutterers.” Stuttering and cluttering can coexist.

4. Are boys or girls more likely to stutter?

In elementary-aged children, stuttering is 3-4 times more common in males than females.

5. My family member stutters. Does that make my child more likely to stutter?

The ASHA website (http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/stuttering/) states that the cause of stuttering is unknown; however, genetics may play a part. Stuttering may also be impacted by neurological, environmental, developmental, and emotional factors.

6. Are there any famous people who stutter?

There are many famous people who stuttered and went on to have successful lives including Emily Blunt, James Earl Jones, Winston Churchill, Marilyn Monroe, James Stewart, Carly Simon, Bob Love, John Updike, and King George VI. The Stuttering Foundation provides an extensive list: Famous People who Stutter

Practice Ideas for Home:

Check out our games, apps, and books below:

But how would you work on fluency using games, apps, and books you might ask? Simply have your child use their most reliable fluency strategies during the activity of your choice.

Games: 

Scattegories, Headbands, Guess who, Apples to Apples, Zingo, Uno, Boggle

Apps:

Articulation Station, Toca Boca, My Play Home Lite, Name Things

Books:

The Very Hungry Catterpillar, Green Eggs and Ham, The Tiny Seed, Chicka Chicka Boom Boom

What is Phonology?

Phonology is aspect of language that relates to rules that govern the structure and sequencing of speech sounds. For example in English, the ng sound, as in sing, will never appear at the beginning of a word.

What are Phonological Processes?

Phonological processes are patterns of speech sound errors that children use to simplify speech as they are learning to talk. For example, a child may delete final consonants from words as in cu for cup.

Some common phonological processes used as children are acquiring the sound system of a language may include:

PHONOLOGICAL PROCESS (Phonological Deviation)	EXAMPLE DESCRIPTION
Velar fronting	“Kiss” is pronounced as “tiss” “Give” is pronounced as “div”
Final consonant deletion	“Home” is pronounced a “hoe” “Calf” is pronounced as “cah”
Weak syllable deletion	Telephone is pronounced as “teffone” “Tidying” is pronounced as “tying”
Stopping	“Funny” is pronounced as “punny” “Jump” is pronounced as “dump”
Cluster reduction	“Spider” is pronounced as “pider” “Ant” is pronounced as “at”
Gliding of liquids	“Real” is pronounced as “weal” “Leg” is pronounced as “yeg”

Adapted from COPYRIGHT ©1999 CAROLINE BOWEN

Should I be worried if my child still uses phonological processes?

Not necessarily. Generally, most phonological processes disappear by a by age 5.

What is phonological awareness?

Phonological awareness is the ways in which speech can be manipulated and divided into smaller parts. This includes rhyming, segmenting syllables and sounds within words and blending them together to form words. Improving phonological awareness skills has been shown to help with reading readiness skills.

How can I help my child?

Use good speech that is clear and simple for your child to model.

Sing simple songs and recite nursery rhymes to show the rhythm and pattern of speech.

Acknowledge, encourage, and praise all attempts to speak.

Engage Your child in the following types of activities.

Rhyming and alliteration activities
• Have your child point out the rhyming words in a poem
• Substitute poem words then ask your child for a rhyming word for the replaced word.

Oral Blending Activities
• Say a word in parts. For example, instead of saying brush your teeth, segment the sounds of words as in B – R – U – SH your teeth.
• Play a guessing game. Tell your child, “I’m thinking of an animal.” Sound out the parts of the word as in, ‘It’s a g – i – r- a-ff- e.

Oral Segmentation Activities
• Ask your child questions such as, “Can you tell me the last sound in breakfast?”

Phonemic Manipulation Activities
• Help your child differentiate sound position in words by counting the sounds in words.
• Play word games by replacing the first sound in a word with another sound. For example, replace the first sound in the word “hand” with /s/.

FAQs

Q: Should I correct my child when they produce the sound errors?

A: Not necessarily.  It can be frustrating for a child to repeatedly try to imitate a sound that they are not yet ready to produce.  Instead try to model the sound or sound patter for them, emphasizing the correct production.  For example, if a child says, “A tat” (A cat), you can repeat the word correctly several times, “A cat.  Yes, I see the cat.  What a pretty cat!”

Phonology Apps

Rhyming from I Can Do Apps

Starting Sounds from I Can Do Apps

Definitions:

Language:

Communication using spoken language, written language or other symbol systems. Language includes content (vocabulary, concepts), form (sounds, word endings and beginnings, grammar), and use (the function of language within context also known as pragmatics).  Receptive and Language are discussed below.

Receptive Language:

Receptive language is the understanding of language input. This includes understanding vocabulary, concepts; big / little, on/ off, few/ many, directions, prefixes/suffixes, word endings; unhappy vs. happy, hat vs. hats, questions, grammatical structures, stories, facts, and implied information.

Expressive Language:

Expressive language is language output. This includes expressing single word vocabulary, concepts; big / little, on/ off, few/ many, prefixes/suffixes, word endings; unhappy vs. happy, hat vs. hats, directions, questions, grammatical structures, stories, facts, and implied information.

Language Disorder:

According to The American Speech Language Hearing Association (ASHA), a language-based disorder is characterized by problems with age appropriate written and spoken language. If a child speaks two or more languages and has a language disorder, he/she will have a language disorder in both languages.

Language Difference:

Language differences are the result of the normal process of learning a second language.  As a child learns a new language, their first language will influence their second language development (this is typical and expected).  If a child speaks two or more languages and exhibits language differences, they will not exhibit difficulties in both languages.

Language Development:

Language begins to develop at birth when an infant learns to cry in order to receive food, comfort, and company.  Children vary in their development of speech and language skills. However, they follow a progression of skills as they learn language. The skills listed below indicate the order that many children develop these skills.  If a child is not developing on track, he or she may not be able to fully access or participate in their school curriculum.

Typical Progression of Skills:

• Plays peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake
• Listens when spoken to, attends to spoken information and directions
• Understands words for common items such as “cup”, “shoe”, “juice”
• Responds to requests
• Imitates sounds and words
• Uses one or two words independently
• Knows a few body parts and can point to them when asked
• Follows simple directions (“Roll the ball”) and understands simple questions (Where’s your hat?”)
• Enjoys simple stories, songs, and rhymes
• Points to pictures when named in books
• Acquires new words on a regular basis
• Use some one or two word questions (“Where’s kitty?” or “Go home?”)
• Puts two words together (“More cookie”)
• Has a word for almost everything in their environment
• Uses two or three word phrases to talk about and ask for things
• Names objects to ask for them or to direct attention to them
• Answers simple, “Who?” “What?” and “Why?” questions
• Talks about activities at daycare, preschool, or friends’ homes
• Uses sentences with four or more words
• Pays attention to a short story and answers simple questions about it
• Hears and understands most of what is said at home and school
• Uses sentences that give many details
• Tells stories that stay on topic
• Communicates easily with other children and adults
• Develops an understanding and use of varied language forms (grammar)
• Understands factual information and makes connections with previous knowledge
• Understands and expresses figurative language such as idiomatic expressions (e.g., Let the cat out of the bag)

What can I do at home to help my child

The chart below lists specific language skills, how they are demonstrated receptively, how they are demonstrated expressively, and links to home activities that can be used to help your child.

Frequently Asked Questions:

Q: How can I find time to help my child with their language skills?

A: Use time when you are already with your child to practice their language skills. Language can be practiced in the car, while shopping, cooking, cleaning, around the dinner table. 

 

Q:Why won’t my child talk about school even when I ask questions?

A: The reasons can be many but may be related to the type of questions you are asking and the time you are asking them.  Many children need time to decompress from their school day before they are ready to talk.  Asking specific questions can also help when trying to help your child open up and remember their day. It seems oftentimes, that kids are most ready to talk, when it is bedtime. Perhaps this is because they are avoiding going to sleep but you can plan ahead for this by preparing for bedtime a bit early so you have time to talk before they fall asleep. 

Q: My child’s teacher said that he is “a visual learner”. What does this mean?

A: Every child has their own unique learning style. Some children learn most easily by looking (visual), others by listening (auditory), and still others by doing(kinesthetic).  Teachers work to differentiate their instruction so that children with different learning styles have opportunities to learn in the way that works best for them. Oftentimes, children who struggle with language will learn better through another modality such as visual or kinesthetic.  

A narrative or story is a report of connected events, real or imaginary, presented in a sequence of written or spoken words, or still or moving images, or both.

Expository discourse is a discourse that explains or describes a topic. Some of the major types of expository discourse include: comparison (compare/contrast), causation (cause/effect), procedural (temporal sequence), problem/solution, collection/description (descriptive), and enumeration.

Some of our students participate in aspects of the Story Grammar Marker Curriculum under the direction of his/her speech-language pathologist (SLP). The following link lists some key concepts from that curriculum. Please contact your child’s SLP with specific questions about your child’s speech-language targets and program.

https://mindwingconcepts.com/pages/about-us

Narrative Related Apps

Preschool/Elementary School 

• Storyboard That -A graphic organizer and storyboard creator that reinforces English and history concepts in elementary school and beyond. Students can create and retell their own narrative.
  http://www.storyboardthat.com/help/storyboard-creator

• All About Me -Create a story about you! Add your own pictures and audio about yourself. $.99
  https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/all-about-me-storybook/id426201106?mt=8

• Puppet Pals- Create your own puppet show using pictures from your environment.  Free-$1.99
  Puppet Pals

• Pic Collage  – Create movable pictures on a background (think felt board) using your own pictures.
  https://pic-collage.com/

Middle/High School

• StoryBoard That-  a graphic organizer and storyboard creator that reinforces English and history concepts in elementary school and beyond. Students can create and retell their own narrative.
  http://www.storyboardthat.com/help/storyboard-creator

• Google docs/classroom/sheets/drive-  A free Web-based application in which documents and spreadsheets can be created, edited and stored online.  Students can create and edit their own typed responses to writing prompts or book summaries.
  Google.com

• Quizlet- Trains students via flashcards and various games and tests.
  Quizlet.com

• Sparknotes- A site that helps you understand books, write papers, and study for tests.
  Sparknotes.com

Recommended Books/activities

Preschool/Elementary School

• The Tiny Seed
• The Very Hungry Caterpillar
• A Bad Case of the Stripes
• Caps for Sale
• Where the Wild Things Are
• Harry the Dirty Dog
• If you Give a Mouse a Cookie
• Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No-good, Very-bad Day

After reading: Complete a graphic organizer using pictures or words

      

Middle/High School

• Devise a target reading schedule for the summer reading book (s) of your choice. (Use the summer calendar link below to help with this)
• Complete Written Summary or Graphic Organizer

 

• MCAS practice items: Answer multiple choice questions, and write short open response prompt.  

http://www.doe.mass.edu/mcas/testitems.html

Summer Calendars

Preschool/Elementary School

Middle/High School

https://docs.google.com/document/d/12hNiDz7Cecj0zOhZrVX2FTn2y9sRGMH6ZvCKVbjIQSM/edit?usp=sharing

Key Terms:

Social/ pragmatic language is how we use our language.  According to the American Speech, Language, and Hearing Association (ASHA), social/ pragmatic language involves three major communication skills:

Using Language

Using language for different purposes, such as:

greeting (e.g., hello, goodbye)

informing (e.g., I’m going to get a cookie)

demanding (e.g., Give me a cookie)

promising (e.g., I’m going to get you a cookie)

requesting (e.g., I would like a cookie, please)

Changing language

Changing language according to the needs of a listener or situation, such as:

talking differently to a baby than to an adult

giving background information to an unfamiliar listener

speaking differently in a classroom than on a playground

Following Rules

Following rules for conversations and storytelling, such as:

taking turns in conversation

introducing topics of conversation

staying on topic

rephrasing when misunderstood

how to use verbal and nonverbal signals

how close to stand to someone when speaking

how to use facial expressions and eye contact

These rules may vary across cultures and within cultures. It is important to understand the rules of your communication partner.

from: http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/Pragmatics.htm 11/9/2016

Additonal Terms:

Nonverbal communication is one aspect of social/pragmatic language skills.  Click here for more information about nonverbal communication.

Play skills are an important part of language development, and some social/pragmatic language skills can be addressed by targeting specific play skills.  Click here to learn more about language and play.

Much of what we say to each other is not just expressed with words, but through gestures, body language, tone of voice, and voice melody.   Nonverbal communication can support what you say (such as smiling while telling a friend, ” I like that shirt!”), replace what we say (such as a head nod for “yes”), and even contradict what you say (such as eye rolling while saying “I can’t wait to get started on that.”).

• Students with social/pragmatic language difficulties often have difficulty using and interpreting non-verbal communication.

• These students may have:
  • Difficulty reading and using body language and facial expression:  These students may appear overly serious and use a ‘flat’ tone of voice OR may be overly expressive and not understand when to use those tones.
  • Difficulty understanding sarcasm:  These students may be very literal, as they are not “keyed in” to the tone of voice, but rather focus only on the exact words used.

What can I do to help?

• Be specific with your words:  Try to avoid using language that is too general; it can leave room for misinterpretation or misunderstanding.
  • Example: Instead of saying, “Pay attention,” be specific, and say, “Listen to mom’s words, this is important,” or ,“Look at the directions on the top of the paper.”
• Watch a television show clip with the volume off:  Make a game of trying to guess what is happening in the show.  Re-watch with the volume on and discuss the similarities and differences of your version and the actual version.
• Play carefully with sarcasm:  Our students may react opposite to what you mean or may get frustrated with their difficulty understanding it.  If a situation arises where sarcasm is used, use it as a teaching opportunity. Explain to the student what is said and what is really meant, and direct the student to listen for the different voice tones and watch for the body language involved.

Language development and play skills go hand-in-hand.  Below are some ways you can build  language skills (expressive, receptive, and social/pragmatic language skills) through play.

Pre-K and Kindergarten: Building Language & Literacy through Play

Play in Autism Spectrum and and Social Communication Disorders:  Encouraging Pretend Play in Children with Social Communication Difficulties